The Satsuma Rebellion and the Battle of Shiroyama: The true story of the real Last Samurai

Battle of Shiroyama, contemporary depiction.

The Battle of Shiroyama took place on 24 September 1877 on the idyllic summit of a hill called Shiroyama in Kagoshima, Japan. It was the final battle of the Satsuma Rebellion and the last ever occurrence of armed resistance by the samurai class against the new imperial government.
 
Although the Satsuma Domain had been one of the key players in the Meiji Restoration, and although many men from Satsuma had risen to influential positions in the new Meiji government, there was growing dissatisfaction with the direction the country was taking. The modernization of the country meant the abolition of the privileged social status of the samurai class, and had undermined their financial position. The very rapid and massive changes to Japanese culture, dress and society appeared to many samurai to be a betrayal of the joi ("expel the barbarian") portion of the sonno joi justification used to overthrow the former Tokugawa shogunate.
 

Saigo Takamori

Saigo Takamori, one of the senior Satsuma leaders in the Meiji government who had supported the reforms in the beginning, was especially concerned about growing political corruption (the slogan of his rebel movement was "New government, High morality"). Saigo was a strong proponent of war with Korea in 1873 for their refusal to recognise the new Japanese government. At one point, he offered to visit Korea in person and to provoke a casus belli by behaving in such an insulting manner that the Koreans would be forced to kill him. A war would not only spur the strengthening of Japan's military, but would restore to the samurai their raison d'être. When the plan was rejected, Saigo resigned from all of his government positions in protest and returned to his hometown of Kagoshima, as did many other Satsuma ex-samurai in the military and police forces.
To help support and employ these ex-samurai, in 1874 Saigo established a private academy in Kagoshima. Soon 132 branches were established all over the prefecture. The “training” provided was not purely academic: although the Chinese classics were taught, all students were required to take part in weapons training and instruction in tactics. The traditions of bushido were emphasized. Saigo also started an artillery school. The schools resembled paramilitary political organizations more than anything 

Kagoshima on the island of Kyushu

else, and they enjoyed the support of the governor of Satsuma, who appointed disaffected samurai to political offices, where they came to dominate the Kagoshima government. Support for Saigo was so strong that Satsuma had effectively seceded from the central government by the end of 1876. Fearing a rebellion, the government sent warships to Kagoshima to remove weapons from the Kagoshima arsenal. Ironically, this provoked open conflict, although with the elimination of samurai rice stipends in 1877, tensions were already extremely high. Greatly dismayed by the revolt, Saigo was reluctantly persuaded to lead the rebels against the central government.
The rebellion was suppressed in a few months by the central government's army, a huge mixed force of 300,000 former samurai officers and conscript soldiers under Kawamura Sumiyoshi. The Imperial troops were modern in all aspects of warfare, using howitzers and observation balloons. The Satsuma rebels numbered around 40,000, dwindling to about 400 at the final stand at  Shiroyama. It is perhaps interesting to note that although they fought for the preservation of the role of the samurai, they used Western military methods, guns and cannons; all contemporary depictions of Saigo Takamori depict him garbed in Western-style uniform not traditional samurai armour.
The Siege at Kumamoto Castle from February to early April 1877 was the first major engagement and turning point of the seven-month civil war with the samurai rebels sustaining significant casualties and as a result Saigo's forces could no longer threaten imperial power outside the island of Kyushu. From mid-April to late September 1877 the course of the rebellion was essentially a series of concentrations and dispersals of Saigo's men. They were defeated in subsequent major battles at Hitoyoshi, Nobeoka and Miyakonoja, and were eventually cornered on home ground in Kagoshima city. By 2 September the Satsuma army had dwindled to less than 300 combatants occupying the picturesque hill in Kagoshima called Shiroyama. Within six days the Imperial Army surrounded the rebels with five brigades, and began cautious and lengthy preparations for a final assault supported by artillery and naval batteries.
Imperial Army troops under the command of General Yamagata Aritomo and marines under the command of Admiral Kawamura Sumiyoshi outnumbered Saigo 60 to 1. However, Yamagata was determined to leave nothing to chance. The imperial troops spent several days constructing an elaborate system of ditches, walls and obstacles to prevent the samurai breaking out and escaping. The five government warships in Kagoshima harbour added their firepower to Yamagata's artillery, and began to systematically reduce the rebel hillside positions.
After Saigo rejected a letter dated September 1 from Yamagata asking him to surrender, Yamagata ordered a full frontal infantry assault on September 24, 1877. By 6 a.m., only 40 rebels were still alive and Saigo was severely wounded. The exact manner of his death is a matter of fierce debate. The accounts of his subordinates claim either that he up righted himself and committed seppuku after his injury, or that he requested that a comrade assist his suicide. In debate, some scholars have suggested that neither is the case, and that Saigo may have gone into shock following his wound, losing his ability to speak. Several comrades upon seeing him in this state, would have severed his head, assisting him in the warrior's suicide they knew he would have wished. Later, they would have said that he committed seppuku in order to preserve his status as a true samurai. It is not clear what was done with Saigo's head immediately after his death. Some legends say Saigo's manservant hid the head, and it was later found by a government soldier and was reunited with Saigo's body, which was laid next to that of his deputies Kirino and Murata. This was witnessed by the American sea captain John Hubbard. A myth persists that the head was never found.

Shiroyama today

After Saigo's death, the last of the samurai drew their swords and plunged downhill toward the Imperial positions and charged into enemy lines to their deaths. Accounts differ as to what form this last charge took, traditional interpretations see the last of the samurai dying in hand to hand combat with imperial troops, a perhaps more heroic and symbolic account claims they were all mowed down by Gatling guns before reaching the imperial troops.  With these deaths, the samurai force had been completely wiped out and the Satsuma rebellion came to an end.
Financially, crushing the Satsuma Rebellion cost the government greatly, forcing Japanese currency off the gold standard and causing the government to print paper money. The rebellion was also effectively the end of the samurai class, as the new Imperial Japanese Army built of conscripts without regard to social class had proven itself in battle.
Many legends sprang up concerning Saigo, many of which denied his death. Many people in Japan expected him to return from British India or Qing Dynasty China or to sail back with Tsesarevich Alexander of Russia to overthrow injustice. It was even recorded that his image appeared in a comet near the close of the 19th century, apparently an ill omen to his enemies. Unable to overcome the affection that the people had for this epitome of traditional samurai virtues, the Meiji Era government pardoned him posthumously on February 22, 1889.

Book Review: Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia, 1600-1947

The Iron Kingdom by Christopher Clark. It's a history of Prussia from 1600 to the end of the Weimar Republic. It sounds rather dry, but I've always been fascinated by history of Germany in particular. I don't know why – I love Berlin, I love German culture.... What is it about Germany that can produce the Wagner's and the Beethoven's and Immanuel Kant and Mendelssohn – the philosopher Mendelssohn, as well as the composer – as well as this terrible dark side? And Prussia is really the embodiment of all this, so I suppose that's why I was delighted when I received this book.

ISBN: 0140293345

Price: £6.97

Publication Date: 2007

Buy this book



Overall this is a welcome addition to the multitude of histories covering central Europe. Clark brings to life an era of Prussian history that is little known aside from the 19th and 20th century Kaisers and this expansive history is a fine piece of research.

The author analyzes the transformation of the Prussian empire from its small Brandenburg origins to the dominant European power it became. The book covers all the major rulers from the Great Elector to Frederick the Great to Kaiser Wilhelm II, and examines in detail the social, political, economic and military issues in the long development of Prussia. What I found particularly refreshing, as predominantly a historian of Prussia only after German Unification in 1872, was the detail of the empire's early years with the Great Elector and his two successors. In this era Prussia gained extensive swaths of territory through alliances and marriages, even as it went through internal and religious strife at home. Clark has clearly done his homework, scouring through dusty archives and examining in multiple languages the papers of the empire, most notably the Political Testaments (a letter of sorts to the next King) of the early Kings. Clark examines the successes of the Prussian military machine, with its strength of the canton regimental system, and the growth of the civil service and judiciary. The political manoeuvrings between Prussia, France, England, Russia, and Austria make for fascinating reading, with Prussia somehow managing to come out ahead more often than not.

At 816 pages this is a large book, and takes a while to get through. Clark's writing style is fairly fluid, rich with detail, but the structure of the book is more thematic as opposed to linear, at least in the early chapters. For example, the clash of Lutheranism and Calvinism in the early empire spanned many decades and three different rulers, with the text jumping back and forth between the years. After a few chapters, it's hard to keep focus on who is ruling and what territory is gained, but it does get better as you get deeper into the book. This however, is a minor fault and may be more based on my writing preferences rather than any fault of the author's.  
The book has a very attractive cover and spine, and its robust -compact construction titillates ones sense of touch when handled, so for those of you who occasionally purchase a history book for how it looks rather than for its content this very solid book would make a nice addition to your history shelf.

This book is definitely a History and the Sock Merchant designated 'To accompany Hob-Nobs' and not a 'Noodle Scratcher' its academic worth is in its broad synopsis.

Fate of the ‘Pocket Battleship’ Graf Spee

The Graf Spee was scuttled off Montevideo in 1939. Is it still there?

Yes she is! -almost. Immediately after the scuttling in shallow water, much of the ship's superstructure remained above water level, but then over the years the wreck subsided into the muddy bottom and today only the tip of the mast remains above the surface.
The first salvage from the ship was most likely carried out by Royal Navy intelligence teams which examined and recovered parts of the highly advanced Seetakt radar not destroyed in the scuttling. In late January 1940, the wreck was boarded by US Navy sailors from the light cruiser USS Helena.

Graf Spee's salvaged range-finder

In February 2004 a salvage team began work raising the wreck of the Admiral Graf Spee. The operation is in part being funded by the government of Uruguay, in part by the private sector, as the wreck is now a hazard to navigation. The first major section, a 27-ton gunnery range-finding telemeter, was raised on 25 February 2004. The anchor and rangefinder are currently displayed in the port area of Montevideo. It is expected to take several years to raise the entire wreck. Film director James Cameron is apparently filming the salvage operation - hmmm?.  After it has been raised, it is planned that the ship will be restored and put on display at the National Marine Museum in the Buceo neighbourhood of Montevideo, something which I would love to see. 

Graf Spee's Eagle salvaged from the stern in 2006

On 10 February 2006, the 2 meters (6.6 ft) eagle figurehead of the Admiral Graf Spee was removed from the stern of the ship and recovered. Due to a presidential decree, all salvage operations in Uruguayan waters, including Graf Spee's, were stopped in 2009, it is not as yet known if plans to raise the hole wreck will be continued .

Further Reading: 

That behaviour is just not cricket!

New Issue: on a regular basis we will be introducing different burning historical issues for you to mull over and discuss over your breakfast croissants.
These will be archived in the issues tab.

 This week's conundrum:

Did Japan ever sign the Geneva Convention after the Second World War?

History Hot Date

Televisualizing the Past: Simon Schama and 'A History of Britain' Ten Years On

Wednesday 8 December 2010, 1.00PM to 7.00pm

Speaker: With presentations from those involved in the making of the series including writer and presenter Simon Schama, Controller of BBC Two Janice Hadlow, BBC History Commissioner Martin Davidson, and the award-winning TV producers Clare Bevan and Jamie Muir.

For tickets and booking visit Institute for the Public Understanding of the Past conference website.
Location: Univerity of York
Admission: Ticketed

Book Review: Reflections on the Cuban Missile Crisis

With an ongoing interest in this major confrontation of the cold war I was excited to receive a copy of Reflections on the Cuban Missile Crisis by Raymond Garthoff. This was a rare insightful read from an informed revisionist.

ISBN: 0815730535

Price: £9.95

Publication Date: 1989

Raymond Garthoff's Reflections on the Cuban Missile Crisis is a reflective memoir by a Soviet specialist in the State Department in 1962. Garthoff's book draws on his own recollections, declassified documents and scholarly sources. He does not detail the background or the development of the crisis; rather he attempts to analyze the Soviet understanding of the crisis and the lessons they may have drawn from the experience. According to Garthoff, the primary Soviet motive for introducing nuclear missiles into Cuba was an attempt to change the strategic balance of power. They were not bargaining chips to settle the Berlin problem; they were not there to defend Castro. He rejects the contention that the conclusion of the missile crisis led the Soviet Union to increase immediately its military power; there was no "crash" program to accelerate military power. While the Soviet Union did later develop rough parity with the United States, it was not a direct result of the missile crisis. Garthoff maintains that the short term consequences were positive in that the crisis did lead to detente and to arms control; it ended any new flare up about Berlin; and it ended the threat of an American invasion of Cuba. While American foreign policy remained hostile to Cuba, the missile crisis initiated a belief in Washington that the United States had to accept the fact that Castro and communism would remain in Cuba. Garthoff concludes his reflections with an analysis of what he believes is the long-term legacy for the Soviets. The Soviets learned: 1) not to bluff, 2) not to challenge an adversary who is stronger and 3), most importantly, to avoid crises. Crisis avoidance is better than crisis management; political accommodation is possible and preferable to crisis management. Since no crisis of the magnitude of October 1962 has occurred between the United States and the Soviet Union, Garthoff concludes that both sides had learned this lesson.

 This book is definitely a History and the Sock Merchant designated 'Noodle Scratcher' and would not well accompany Hob-Nobs.

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